Class 11 Notes Computer Science Central Processing Unit Mcqs – The von Neumann architecture—also known as the von Neumann model or the Princeton architecture—is a computer architecture based on a 1945 description by John von Neumann and others in the First Draft Report on EDVAC.
The term “Von Neumann architecture” has evolved to refer to any stored-program computer where instruction fetches and data operations cannot occur simultaneously (because they share a common bus). This is often called the von Neumann bottleneck, which limits the performance of the respective system.
Class 11 Notes Computer Science Central Processing Unit Mcqs
The design of a Von Neumann architecture machine is simpler than a Harvard architecture machine – it is also a stored program system, but has an address and data bus for reading and writing to memory, and another set of addresses and data . buses to bring directions.
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A stored-program digital computer stores program instructions and data in read-write, random-access memory (RAM). Stored-program computers were an improvement over the program-driven computers of the 1940s, such as the Colossus and the IAC. These are programmed by installing switches and inserting patch cables to route data and control signals between the various functional units. The vast majority of modern computers use the same memory for both data and program instructions, but have caches between the CPU and memory and separate memory for instructions and data for the memories closest to the CPU, so most instruction and data fetches use separate buses. (cache allocation architecture).
The earliest computer machines had fixed programs. Some very basic computers still use this design for simplicity or training purposes. For example, a desktop calculator is (in principle) a computer with fixed software. It can do basic math, but can’t run a word processor or games. Changing the software of a fixed-program machine requires rebuilding, rebuilding, or redesigning the machine. The earliest computers were not “programmed” but “designed” for a specific task. “Reprogramming” was – if possible at all – a painstaking process that began with flowcharts and paper notes, followed by detailed engineering designs and the often difficult process of physically rebuilding and rebuilding the car. It can take up to three weeks to build and debug a program at IAC.
This changed with the introduction of the stored program computer. A program-stored computer, by design, contains a set of instructions and can store in memory a set of instructions (the program) that detail the calculations.
The stored program design also allows the code to be modified on its own. One of the original motivations for such a device was the need for software to increment or otherwise modify the address portion of instructions, which operators had to do manually in early designs. This became less important as index registers and indirect addressing became common features of machine architecture. Another use was to place frequently used data in the instruction stream using immediate addressing. Self-modifying code is usually difficult to understand and debug, and has largely fallen out of favor because it is inefficient under modern processor pipeline and storage schemes.
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To a large extent, the ability to treat instructions as data makes assemblers, compilers, linkers, loaders, and other automated programming tools possible. This makes “programming of programs” possible.
Some high-level languages use von Neuman architectures by providing an abstract, machine-independent way to manipulate code at runtime (eg, LISP) or by using runtime information to adjust compile-time real (eg, languages embedded in Java). does. languages embedded in virtual machines or web browsers).
On a smaller scale, some repetitive operations like BITBLT or pixel and vertex shaders can be accelerated on general-purpose processors with compile-time techniques. This is one use of self-modifying code that remains popular.
Mathematician Alan Turing, who was introduced to the problem of mathematical logic by Max Newman’s lectures at Cambridge University, wrote a paper on Computable Numbers with an application to the tscheidungs problem published in the Proceedings of the London Mathematical Society in 1936. .
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There he described a hypothetical machine he called a universal computing machine, now known as the “Universal Turing Machine”. The hypothetical machine had an infinite store (memory in today’s terminology) that contained both instructions and data. John von Neumann met Turing in 1935 when he was visiting professor at Cambridge, and also during Turing’s doctoral year at the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton, New Jersey in 1936-1937. It is unclear whether Turing was aware of the 1936 letter at the time.
In 1936, Konrad Zuse also predicted that in a two-point implementation, machine instructions could be stored in the same memory used for data.
Indeed, J. Presper Eckert and John Mauchly, who developed the IAC at the University of Pennsylvania’s Moore School of Electrical Engineering, wrote about the stored program concept in December 1943.
In January 1944, when planning a new machine called the EDVAC, Eckert wrote that he would store data and programs in a new addressable memory device, mercury metal delay line memory. This was the first time a practical stored program machine was proposed. At the time, he and Mauchli were unaware of Turing’s work.
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Von Neumann was involved in the Manhattan Project at Los Alamos National Laboratory. This required a large amount of computation, thus drawing him to the IAC project in the summer of 1944. There, he joined ongoing discussions about the design of this stored program computer, the EDVAC. As part of that group, he wrote an outline of the First Draft Report for EDVAC
Based on the work of Eckert and Mauchlin. It was incomplete when his colleague Herman Goldstein dissected it and called it only von Neumann (much to the confusion of Eckert and Mauchly).
Jack Copeland believes that “it is historically inappropriate to refer to digital computers with electronically stored programs as ‘von Neumann machines'”.
I know that in 1943 or 44 von Neumann was aware of the central importance of Turing’s 1936 paper… Von Neumann introduced me to that paper and at his insistence I studied it carefully. Many people have considered von Neumann the “father of the computer” (to use the modern term), but I’m sure he would never have made that mistake. Perhaps he could be called a mummy, but he strongly emphasized to me and others that the basic concept was due to Turing – until it was anticipated by Babbage… Both Turing and von Neumann, of course, played an important role in “reducing to experience” of these concepts. have made contributions, but I would consider these insignificant compared to introducing and explaining the concept of a computer capable of storing its own memory. its program of activities and changes to that program during these activities.
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At the time the First Draft report was published, Turing was preparing a report called The Proposed Electronic Calculator. He described his idea for a machine, which he called the Automatic Computational Engine (ACE), in engineering and programming detail.
He presented it to the executive committee of the British National Physical Laboratory on 19 February 1946. Although Turing knew from his wartime experience at Bletchley Park that what he was proposing was possible, the secrecy surrounding the Colossus for several decades later prevented him that. by saying so. Various successful implementations of the ACE design have been developed.
Both von Neumann’s and Turing’s papers described stored-program computers, but von Neumann’s earlier paper gained more circulation, and the computer architecture he described became known as the “von Neumann architecture”. The 1953 edition of Faster Than Thought: A Symposium on Digital Computing Machines (edited by B. W. Bowd) under Computers in America reads:
Machine of the Institute for Advanced Study, Princeton In 1945, Professor J. von Neumann, working at the Moore School of Engineering in Philadelphia, where the E.N.I.A.C. was founded, gave a report on the logic design of digital computers on behalf of a peer group. The report states that since then E.D.V.A.C. There was a detailed proposal for the design of the machine known as (electronic discrete variable automatic computer). This machine was only completed in America, but von Neumann’s report inspired the construction of the E.D.S.A.C. (Automatic Electronic Delay Storage Calculator) in Cambridge (see page 130). In 1947, Burks, Goldstine, and von Neumann published another report describing the design of another type of machine (this time a parallel machine) that could perform extremely fast, perhaps 20,000 operations per second. They noted that the main challenge in building such a machine was developing suitable memory in terms of immediate access. At first they suggested using a special vacuum tube called the “Selectron” provided by RCA’s Princeton Laboratories. These tubes were wide and heavy, so von Neumann later decided to build a machine based on Williams’ memory. Completed at Princeton in June 1952, this car is popularly known as “The Main”.
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